maka, orang perilaku kemudian maju dengan shifting paradigm, managament of
change, learning organizartion, dsb. Ini bisa menjadi perdebatan tersendiri
diluar TQM.

tetapi aku disisi yang sama dengan Mas Vicky. Maka hasil mestinya diukur secara
longitudinal dan buka hanya jangka pendek.

----- Original Message -----
From: "rovicky" <explore@...>
To: <cfbe@yahoogroups.com>
Sent: Wednesday, May 29, 2002 8:18 PM
Subject: [cfbe] Total Quality Management - An Overview


Berikut aku repost sekelumit ttg TQM supaya debatnya balance.
Menurutku 'password'nya ada di "Paradigm shift". Walopun metode, cara
dan sistemnya dll menggunakan TQM, kalo ndak ada paradigm shift
akan 'susah' ketika mengevaluasi hasilnya.

Salam
RDP
------------------------------------------
Total Quality Management
An Overview


By Judith Ann Schlenker

This is an extensive explanation of the basic concepts of total
quality management (TQM) with a history lesson (the Japanese were
first), definitions of key concepts, and a glossary of terms. There
is a good discussion of the change in business paradigms the adoption
of this concept causes and the dangers of not taking this old way of
thinking (management by objectives) into consideration when moving an
organization to the TQM philosophy


Overview

Quality Improvement vs. Quality Assurance

A History Lesson

Examples Of Early Success

Shifting Paradigms

Quality Improvement Concepts

What do customers want?

Measurement of Customer Satisfaction in the Service Sector

Strategy

How to Start

Readiness Assessment

Conducting Employee Surveys

References

Glossary of Quality Improvement Terms

A listing of Employee Involvement Practices


Overview

The TQM philosophy of management is customer-oriented. All members of
a total quality management (control) organization strive to
systematically manage the improvement of the organization through the
ongoing participation of all employees in problem solving efforts
across functional and hierarchical boundaries.

TQM incorporates the concepts of product quality, process control,
quality assurance, and quality improvement. Consequently, it is the
control of all transformation processes of an organization to better
satisfy customer needs in the most economical way. Total quality
management is based on internal or self-control, which is embedded in
each unit of the work system (technology and people). Pushing problem
solving and decision-making down in the organization allows people
who do the work to both measure and take corrective action in order
to deliver a product or service that meets the needs of their
customer.

Managers and experts disagree about how to effectively apply TQM to
their organizations. Some advise that customer satisfaction is the
driving force behind quality improvement; others suggest quality
management is achieved by internal productivity or cost improvement
programs. In other applications, TQM is considered a means to
introduce participative management.

The Japanese, in general, concentrate on customer satisfaction with
a focus on understanding customer needs and expectations.

Until very recently Americans in general have emphasized the "cost of
non-conference", and the importance of employees meeting the agreed
upon requirements for each process. Leopold Vansina, president and
founder of the International Institute of Organizational and Social
Development, cautions that such efforts are based on the (faulty)
assumption that processes and tasks that lead to the desired quality
are already understood. However, he states, control of the production
process will not likely help a business increase its market share
when the product or service does not meet customer requirements.


Quality Improvement vs. Quality Assurance

It is important to avoid equating quality improvement with quality
assurance. Quality assurance is a system of activities designed to
ensure production that meets pre-established requirements. It gives
the customer a guarantee of quality by measuring product conformance
with process and performance specifications. Quality improvement
refers to all efforts directed to increase effectiveness and
efficiency in meeting accepted customer expectations. It is a
continuous process to achieve a better understanding of the market;
to innovate products and processes; to manage and distribute material
and products; and to provide service to customers. The success of
quality improvement is based on the understanding of every member of
the organization concerning the needs of their customers (internal
and external). Maintenance of that understanding requires continuing
dialogue and negotiation with the customer and measurement of one's
products and services against the customer expectations.


A History Lesson

In the late 1970's to mid-1980's U. S. companies were seeking ways to
survive in an environment of back-to-back recessions; deregulation; a
growing trade deficit; low productivity; downsizing; and an increase
in consumer awareness and sophistication. Ford Motor Company had
operating losses of 3.3 billion between 1980 and 1982. Xerox, which
had pioneered the paper copier, saw its U.S. market share drop from
93% in 1971 to 40% in 1981. Attention to quality was seen as a way to
combat the competition.


Examples Of Early Success

Florida Power & Light (FPL) reduced customer complaints by 60% and
improved reliability of electric services to customers by 40% in
1983. In 1987, the firm was rated by 156 utility CEO's as the best
managed utility in the nation.
In its remittance banking or lock-box business, First Chicago's
accuracy rate is nearly three times the industry average.
Xerox has started to regain its market share in copiers from the
Japanese.
Ford now has one of the most popular cars purchased by Americans, the
Taurus
Many of the TQM concepts originated with the work of Dr. W. Edwards
Deming, the American statistician, who guided the Japanese industry's
recovery after World War II and who formed many of his ideas during
World War II when he taught American industries how to use
statistical methods to improve the quality of military products.

While the Japanese listened to Deming American industry did not. For
nearly two decades, before and after World War II, American
businesses were preeminent. In this period of little foreign
competition, American management methods were unchallenged and in
hindsight, costly practices of traditional hierarchy took hold.

Meanwhile, industrial leaders in Japan, burdened with a reputation
for poor quality, invited Dr. Deming to teach them his methods.
Deming urged them to find out what their customers wanted, then study
and improve the design and production processes until the quality of
their product was unsurpassed. He urged a new style of management
that shifts the focus from profits to quality. He reasoned that
employees could learn how to monitor, control and continually improve
their work processes and systems with the application of a scientific
approach. With the collective attention of people to their work
processes and their interdependency, they are better able to produce
products that meet customer expectations. With total quality control
(TQM), decisions are based on data gathered with scientific tools and
approaches. Products and services are improved by improving how the
work gets done (the methods) instead of what is done (the results).

Deming pointed out what he saw as flaws in the traditional model
of "management by objectives" which emphasizes a chain of command in
which objectives are translated into work standards or quotas. He
cautioned that with MBO the performance of employees is guided and
evaluated according to numerical goals. As a result, workers,
managers and supervisors get caught up in protecting themselves.
Looking good overshadows a concern for the customer or the
organization's long-term success. Employees, desperate to meet
quotas, lose sight of the larger purpose of work. A common example is
when sales people are pushed to boost business and make promises
production can't keep.

With the change in focus, the roles of workers and managers are
reformed. A manager's role is to enable employees to do the best job
possible foreseeing and eliminating barriers that get in the way.
Workers learn to apply the expertise they have gained working with
processes and customers on a daily basis

Deming predicted the Japanese adoption of these methods would put
their products in demand throughout the world in five years. He was
wrong; within four years the Japanese had gained large shares of some
markets.


SHIFTING PARADIGMS IN U.S. BUSINESS

The emerging quality movement in the United States represents
significant paradigm shifts in company cultures and business
operations. Typically, the culture of the United States is
characterized by the paradigm of "rugged individualism". Our history
reflects the contribution of many revered individuals. This model of
the world sees people as both the source of and resolution of
problems. In this paradigm, solutions to problems might be seen as
fixing people (i.e., training employees to improve their attitudes).
In this view, the survival of a company may rest in calling upon the
right "star performer", like Lee Iacocca. Whereas quality control
emphasizes that organization survival is contingent upon the
effectiveness of the systems of the organization.

In quality management there is a rule of thumb called the 85/15 Rule
which suggests the root causes of 85% of organizational problems is
faulty systems and that few problems are the result of the behaviors
of employees. This philosophy may meet opposition in many companies
where the current policies, procedures and systems are more
traditional. That is holding each individual accountable instead of
viewing the systems in which they work as the producer of quality.

It follows that the traditional management practices of managing-by-
objectives (MBO) with a hierarchy of objectives and standards that
are passed down in the organization from the top, is another
paradigm. The quality philosophy with a shift in focus from internal
results to customer expectations is another view of the business
world.

Leaders will not turn quality into a competitive advantage if they
behave as if TQM is a simple technique that can be bought and
introduced within a traditional management framework. Vansina
cautions us that installing an elaborate quality assurance system
will not lead to employee commitment to quality. Such efforts are
based on the assumption that processes and tasks that lead to the
desired quality are already understood. A consequence may be
employees feeling pushed into compliance without understanding the
criteria or challenging their effectiveness. Importantly,
expectations and market demands change as do the technology,
materials and/or knowledge utilized.

In light of the above, the impact of the traditional paradigms on
current policies, procedures, and systems in organizations is likely
strong. Implementing Employee Involvement (E.I.), systems will
require commitment from top management as well as from all employees.
That commitment may often involve a change in attitudes. It will also
involve the management of change in the organization. Guiding the
change process requires an understanding of the present
organizational cultures, attitudes, structures and systems.

KEY QUALITY IMPROVEMENT CONCEPTS

Process and systems

Customers and Suppliers

Quality

Benchmarking

Teams and Team Work

Processes and Systems

Dr. Deming describes organizations as composites of systems designed
to meet customer needs. Common systems in organizations are human
resources processes such as compensation or financial ones like
accounting. In such systems, processes and tasks are linked together
and effect one another. For example, status changes for employees
will require interdependent tasks on the part of employees in
payroll, compensation, benefits, training and the relevant
supervisor. The basic assumptions of the Total Quality Control
approach include:

Work can be broken down into tasks, which are a series of related
steps.

A process groups all related tasks done to accomplish an outcome
(i.e., hiring a new employee or producing a product).

People completing a series of related tasks have interdependent roles
in the organization.

A group of related processes can be seen as a system (i.e., producing
or selling a product).

The practice of defining the steps and outcomes (Products and
Services) in their processes and systems by employee's results in a
common language and understanding of what their jobs should be and
how they fit into the larger picture.

With the application of the scientific approach using flow charts,
work-flow diagrams, deployment charts, pareto charts and Cause and
Effect Diagrams people can see their interdependence and that the
quality of what comes out is in measure determined by the quality
that goes into a process.


Customers and Suppliers

Customers and suppliers are both inside (internal) and outside
(external) the organization. People in and out side organizations
that provide input to the steps in a process are "suppliers" and
those who use products or service are "customers". Thus, employees in
one phase of a work process are customers of the employees who
produced the goods or services used by them in their work processes.
Sales employees are customers of the marketing research employees.
The marketing research employees are customers of statisticians and
computer information systems employees who are assisting them and
maintaining computing capacity for use in analyzing data. Employees
within the organization receive work passed through their systems
from other employees, the "internal" suppliers.

Therefore, each employee is a customer of preceding employees; and
each has customers, the people to who receive the results of his or
her work. Likewise, the people outside the organization who sell
materials, information or services to be used by employees
are "external" suppliers. A company's external customers purchase a
product or service and contribute to profits. They must ultimately be
satisfied if the business is to survive.


Quality

A popular slogan of the quality movement is "quality begins with the
customer." The premise being if customers are the people who receive
our work then only they can tell us what they want and how they want
it. The quality that comes out of a process is affected by the
quality of what goes in and what happens at every step along the way.
It follows that we must build quality into every step, process, and
system to produce quality in the outcome. To do this, we must
collaborate with internal and external suppliers and communicate with
internal and external customers to determine their needs.

Attainment of quality in products and services at competitive prices
requires an emphasis on doing the right things (products and services
that reflect target features based on the needs of intended
customers) and doing the right things right (using efficient
processes).


Benchmarking

Benchmarking is the comparison of the processes and systems of a
given business function across companies. It can be applied to any
area of an organization. It is a way for managers and employees to
compare their functional performance to that of other companies,
particularly those that excel, and identifying why they may differ.
Benchmarking can be defined as:

Measuring your performance against that of best-in-class companies

Analyzing how (methods) the best achieve their performance level, and

Using the information as the basis for evaluating your own targets,
strategy, and applications.

Involvement and improvement are not limited to employees. In some
cases, customers and suppliers are involved in-group problem solving.
At Ford, vendors and dealers contribute ideas.


Teams and Teamwork

When TQM is successful employees at every level participate in
decisions affecting their work. The most common vehicle for employee
participation is a team. Teams range in scope and responsibility from
problem-solving groups to self-managed work teams that schedule work,
assign jobs, hire members, and set the standards and volume of
output. A participative work culture is encouraged when quality
becomes everybody's responsibility.


Customer Satisfaction . . .What do customers want?

The philosophy that TQM is customer-oriented and its goal is to
satisfy the customer seems straightforward. However, the expectations
and needs of the customer may not be clearly expressed or well
defined and may be difficult to measure. Measurement of attitudes as
well as systems is required if the ultimate appreciation of quality
lies with the customer's subjective comparison as suggested by Deming
and other experts.

The literature offers some clarification. Yoji Akao addressed this
issue by distinguishing three basic classes of customer wants:

1. What customers say they want. Customer demands are frequently
translated into specifications without exploring their meaning in
regard to how the product or service will be used. Neglecting to
explore how the customer intends to use the product or service can
lead to poor or improper design.

2. The customer's expected quality consists of expectations the
customer does not verbalize because they assume them to be evident:
such as the product must be safe. Extensive interviews may not even
elicit these expectations. Yet, customers will be dissatisfied if the
product or service does not meet these assumed expectations. Even so,
if the expectations are built into the product, customers will hardly
notice. These expectations are so provasive that the customer takes
them for granted.

3. Exciting quality consists of attributes of the product or service
contributed by the supplier. The customer may not expect them as
characteristics, but they recognize them as improvements and like
them. For example, a car with an electrical system that shuts off the
headlights when the ignition is turned off, even when the driver
forgets, has such an attribute. A customer will appreciate that
safeguard many times over and appreciate the manufacturer's foresight
while driving and owning the automobile.


Measurement of Customer Satisfaction in the Service Sector

Another potential difficulty in the measurement of satisfaction is an
appreciation of the differences between the nature of work in
manufacturing and in the service sector. In the service sector,
customer's overall appreciation of quality depends on both product
quality and the quality of the service process. Vansina defines the
service process as "the wholeness of the transactions between the
service agent and the customer resulting in the selection, delivery,
and/or consumption of the product."

Previous research has shown that customer satisfaction in the service
sector is related to the following criteria:

The subjective comparison between customers' expectations before
they received the service and their actual experience with the
service.

Quality evaluations both of the service process and service outcome.

The level at which regular service is delivered and the level at
which exceptions or problems is handled.

It will be important to monitor and evaluate employee behavior as
well as the attributes of the technical outcomes. For example, in the
restaurant business, the quality of the treatment of customers by
waiters and other staff can diminish or enhance the quality and
presentation of the food. Developing standards and systems to enable
and support employees in the front line deal in a satisfactory way
with their customers will be essential (i.e., training, equipment,
such as telephones and computer terminals, floor plans and storage).
Obviously, neglecting the needs of the employees for respectful
treatment, supplies, and resources will reduce the quality of their
input and their output.

Employees in a total quality culture will continually improve their
systems working with their managers and quality experts (i.e.,
quality assurance, facilitators, and engineers) in order to excel at
meeting the needs of customers both inside and outside the
organization. To do that effectively, workers must go to their
customers to gather information using scientific methods. However,
the analysis of customer expectations will always require
interpretation. Subsequently, these interpretations must be
translated into product and service specifications. In the end, the
executive staff must make strategic choices about the customer
expectations that the organization is willing and able to meet.


STRATEGY

Organizations that are successful at implementing employee
involvement practices use a strategy to get a match between the
practices and the organization culture (i.e., the unique values,
beliefs, and behaviors of people in the organization that explain how
individuals and groups work together to get things done). Experts and
the GAO study results suggest the strategy should include:


Readiness Assessment to identify: 1) barriers to implementation of
E.I. and the associated practices, and 2) the present climate or
culture. Such information can help decision-makers to make choices
about the practices that best fit the ability of the organization to
adapt to them. Typical methods include interviews, questionnaires,
focus groups, observation, and examination of records.

Communication of specific goals for employee involvement set by
management. Support is demonstrated through such means as policy
statements, rewards, sharing work-related information and publicizing
efforts and accomplishments in employee newsletters.

Training to enable managers and employees alike to learn the skills
required for E.I. practices. For example, supervisors and employees
may need training in group leadership, providing feedback, and
problem-solving in order to work together effectively on improvement
efforts in teams.

Evaluation of the program features and effects include formal
measurement of target results and monitoring the implementation and
support of employee participation in planning, problem solving and
decision-making.

If your organization has the internal support of professionals or can
hire those with the expertise to do employee attitude surveys,
performance analysis, and statistical analysis, you might consider a
participative approach to a readiness assessment.

Organizational development consultants and facilitators can provide
support to decision-makers starting E.I. programs by conducting
orientation sessions and surveys. This is done to assist the decision-
makers in evaluating the readiness of their organization for employee
involvement practices such as "Teams", an approach used frequently.

There are advantages to using outside experts to conduct an employee
attitude study. Some of the considerations include:

Individuals trained in organization dynamics and survey research
will likely obtain more in-depth and accurate data because of their
skill at interviewing, study design and analysis.

Employees often feel the data will be treated in a confidential way
if an external person gathers, analyzes and reports it. People may be
more candid and cooperative in providing information.

An external person may have a clearer perspective of what is
occurring in the organization because they do not have any vested
interest in the results.

How to Start

We recommend that decision-makers from each organization consider its
own history, culture and resources in designing a quality program
using employee involvement. An analysis of the data from the GAO
Study of 1987, of 962 private organizations, by Dulworth, Landen and
Usilaner indicated that companies that have implemented incongruent
or "prepackaged forms of E.I., have seen the systems fail. The
authors state that change efforts must be integrated with the primary
systems and processes of the organization to provide lasting effects.

Due to the above concerns, we recommend that an organization's
decision-makers:

Conduct an assessment of the organization's existing attitudes,
structures, culture, systems and barriers to the desired change;
Develop a vision statement for the future;
Involve management in the design of the E.I., strategy to increase
ownership;
Develop a formal policy on the role of Employee Involvement (E.I.),
and specific goals and objectives;
Publish the E.I., policy, goals and objectives;
Communicate the above to employees at all organizational levels;
Implement E.I., strategies that will fit the ability of the employees
and management to adapt to them;
Provide facilitators, quality advisors, and other change agents to
support the group structures;
Train employees in problem solving, group skills and other skills
needed to identify problems, make decisions and problem-solve.
Evaluate the E.I. strategies to determine that the program:
methods are working;

is implemented as intended;

is producing the results as expected.

Make sure that your organization understands there will be a
fundamental conflict between the traditional organization structures
and systems and those required to support employee participation.
Many of today's managers still resist any system they see to be a
threat to their authority and their traditional roles. Thus it may be
necessary to begin implementation of the quality approach by using
the traditional model. This may seem incongruent. Executives of the
Conference Board's U.S. Quality Council stressed that "attitudinal
and behavioral changes come hard." Defining and meeting customer
requirements continuously demands a culture that incorporates
constant change. People resist the demands of continuous change
because it creates uncertainty. Faced with previous personal
experiences as employees who were rated on their individual
achievements (meeting their objectives and quotas) they will be
fearful of trusting their personal welfare to groups and the "common
good".

Therefore, a transitional approach to developing participative
attitudes and skills in managers may be necessary to start the
organization toward total quality management. It may be best to begin
by holding managers accountable for developing employee participation
through the use of the list above and by use a management by
objectives approach to measure their progress until the quality
approach takes hold. Thus, creating a transition from the traditional
view to the new total quality philosophy by use of something
familiar, MBO.


GENERAL APPROACH AND RATIONALE FOR AN ORGANIZATION

READINESS ASSESSMENT

"How to's" for getting employee involvement (E.I.) started in your
organization or improving efforts you may already have in place
include a readiness assessment.

It is recommended, if you haven't done so, that you arrange for
a "study" to gather baseline data to identify critical needs and
issues associated with your organization's current performance and
continual improvement. Such "fact finding" can lead to information
that identifies gaps between current performance and that desired by
management, employees and customers. Productivity improvement efforts
(TQM/EI) can then be focused on the areas that will yield the maximum
results for the organization.

In addition, information can be used from this assessment to diagnose
training needs and provide a baseline against which the management
team can measure improvements in both skills and productivity.

Failure to identify the current skills, knowledge and management
style could lead to providing some training not needed by managers
and employees, and neglecting to address problems that are not
related to training.

It is suggested that you read the following publications to get an
overview of the issues involved in designing and implementing a
quality improvement effort using employee involvement. We suggest the
GAO Report, Employee Involvement: Issues for Agencies to Consider in
Designing and Implementing Programs, and the explanatory
article, "The Seven Elements of Strategic Fit," by Robert Waterman
Jr., which provides one model for evaluating the match between
strategy and relevant organization variables.

The GAO Report cautions, "If organizations are not prepared and
barriers to change are not addressed employee involvement will be
ineffective or will not last." The GAO Report, cited above,
summarizes a 1987 survey of 934 private firms and 19 federal
agencies. The purpose of the study was to determine the nature and
extent of the employee involvement programs present in the
organizations that were studied, the perceived benefits, and to
identify factors promoting or hindering acceptance of these
practices. Management support and a long-term strategy were the
factors identified as helping to ensure the organizational support
and success of these programs.

Top and middle management support was the most important factor that
promoted a successful implementation of employee involvement
programs. Support was demonstrated by:

Behaviors that encouraged and responded to employee input (i.e., walk
the way they talk).

Communication of the goals of E.I. practices throughout the
organization.

Written goals and objectives.


CONDUCTING EMPLOYEE SURVEYS

Survey methods and instruments should be designed with attention to
how the information will be used by the decision-makers and how it
will be communicated to the participants. When the objectives of the
study are clear, communication about the process is consistent.

The management team working with the consultants (and in some cases a
task force) should be able to clearly state what they need to know
and how they plan to use this information in order for the researcher
to develop suitable instruments to gather the needed data.


REFERENCES

Deming, W. Edward. Out of Crisis. Cambridge, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, 1986.

Dulworth, Michael; Landen, Delmar; Usilaner, Brian. Employee
Involvement Systems in U.S. Corporations: Right Objectives, Wrong
Strategies. National Productivity Review, Vol. 9, No. 2, Spring, 1990.

Pryor, Lawrence S. Benchmarking: A Self-Improvement Strategy. The
Journal of Business Strategy, November/December 1989.

Schein, Lawrence. "The Road to Total Quality: Views of Industry
Experts". Conference Board Research Bulletin, No. 239, 1990.

Scholtes, Peter R. The Team Handbook: How to Use Teams to Improve
Quality. Joiner Associates, Inc., 1988.

United States General Accounting Office. Employee Involvement: Issues
for Agencies to Consider in Designing and Implementing Programs.
GAO/GGD 88-82, May, 1988.

Vansina, Leopold. Total Quality Control: An Overall Organization
Improvement Strategy. National Productivity Review, Vol. 9, No. 1,
Winter, 1990.

Waterman, Robert H., Jr. The Seven Elements of Strategic Fit. The
Journal of Business Strategy, Vol. 2, No. 3, Winter, 1982.


GLOSSARY OF QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TERMS

Common-Cause Variation: Any normal variation inherent in a work
process. (See also Special-Cause Variation.)

Complexity: Unnecessary work; any activity that makes a work process
more complicated without adding value to the resulting product or
service.

Continuous Improvement Process: The ongoing enhancement of work
processes for the benefit of the customer and the organization;
activities devoted to maintaining and improving work process
performance through small and gradual improvements as well as radical
innovations.

Control Chart: A line graph that identifies the variation occurring
in a work process over time; helps distinguish between common-cause
variation and special-cause variation.

Cost of Quality: A term used by many organizations to quantify the
costs associated with producing quality products. Typical factors
taken into account are prevention costs (training, work process
analyses, design reviews, customer surveys), appraisal costs
(inspection and testing), and failure costs (rework, scrap, customer
complaints, returns).

Cross Functional: Involving the cooperation of two or more
departments within the organization (e.g., Marketing and Product
Development).

Customer: Any person or group inside or outside the organization who
receives a product or service.

Customer Expectations: The "needs" and "wants" of a customer that
define "quality" in a specified product or service.

Deming Cycle (also known as Shewart's Wheel): A model that describes
the cyclical interaction of research, sales, design, and production
as a continuous work flow, so that all functions are involved
constantly in the effort to provide products and services that
satisfy customers and contribute to improved quality. (See also PDCA.)

Department Improvement Team: Made up of all members of a department
and usually chaired by the manager or supervisor, department
improvement teams function as a vehicle for all employees to
continuously participate in ongoing quality improvement activities.

Executive Steering Committee (or Executive Improvement Team):
Includes top executives and is chaired by the CEO; encourages and
participates in a quality initiative by reviewing, approving, and
implementing improvement activities.

Fitness-For-Use: Juran's definition of quality suggesting that
products and services need to serve customers' needs, instead of
meeting internal requirements only.

Improving Steering Council (also known as Quality Steering
Committee): A group of people with representation from all functions
in the organization, usually drawn from management levels, chartered
to develop and monitor a quality improvement process in their own
functions. This group is often responsible for deciding which
improvement projects or work processes will be addressed and in what
priority.

Internal Customer: Anyone in the organization who relies on you for a
product or service. (See also Customer.)

Internal Supplier: Anyone in the organization you rely on for a
product or service. (See also Supplier.)

Juran Trilogy: The interrelationship of three basic managerial
processes with which to manage quality, quality control, and quality
improvement.

Just-In-Time (JIT): A method of production and inventory cost
control based on delivery of parts and supplies at the precise time
they are needed in a production process.

Kaizen: Japanese term meaning continuous improvement involving
everyone-managers and employees alike.

Key Expectations: The requirements concerning a specified product or
service that a customer holds to be most important.

PDCA Cycle: An adaptation of the Deming Cycle, which stresses that
every improvement activity, can best be accomplished by the following
steps: plan, do, check, etc. (See Deming Cycle.)

Process Improvement Team: Includes experienced employees from
different departments who solve problems and improve work processes
that go across-functional lines. (Also known as Service Improvement
Team, Quality Improvement Team, or Corrective Action Team.)

Quality: a customer's perception of the value of a product or
service; organizations, theorists, and dictionaries define it
differently. Well-known definitions include:

"conformance to requirements" (Crosby)

"the efficient production of the quality that the market expects"
(Deming)

"fitness for use"; "product performance and freedom from
deficiencies" (Juran)

"the total composite product and service characteristics of
marketing, engineering, manufacturing, and maintenance through which
the product and service in use will meet the expectations of the
customer" (Felgenbaum)

"anything that can be improved" (Imal)

"meeting or exceeding customer expectations at a cost that represents
value to them" (Harrington)

"does not impart loss to society" (Taguchi)

"the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service
that bear on its ability to satisfy a given need" (American Society
for Quality Control)

"degree of excellence" (Webster's Third New International Dictionary)

Quality Circle: A small group of employees organized to solve work-
related problems; often voluntarily; usually not chaired by a
department manager.

Quality Initiative: A formal effort by an organization to improve the
quality of its products and services; usually involves top management
development of a mission statement and long-term strategy.

Special-Cause Variation: Any violation arising from circumstances
that are not a normal part of the work process. (See also Common-
Cause Variation.)

Supplier: Any person or group inside or outside the organization that
produces a product or service. Suppliers improve quality by
identifying customer expectations and adjusting work processes so
that products and services meet or exceed those expectations. (See
also Customer.)

Task Force: An ad hoc, cross-functional team formed to resolve a
major problem as quickly as possible; usually includes subject matter
experts temporarily relieved of their regular duties.

Total Quality Control (TQM): A management approach advocating the
involvement of all employees in the continuous improvement process-
not-just quality control specialists.

Work Partnership: A mutually beneficial work relationship between
internal and external customers and suppliers.

Work Process: A series of work steps that produce a particular
product or service for the customer.

Zero Defects: An approach to quality based on prevention of errors;
often adopted as a standard for performance or a definition of
quality (notably in Crosby Quality Training).


EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT PRACTICES

Practice
Definition

Suggestion System
Program that elicits individual employee suggestions on improving
work or the work environment.

Survey Feedback
Use of employee attitude surveys, as part of a larger problem-
solving process in which survey data are used to encourage,
structure, and measure the effectiveness of employee participation.

Quality Circle
Group of employees that meet voluntarily in a structured environment
to identify and suggest work-related improvements. The group's only
power is to suggest changes.

Quality of Work-Life Committee
Committee of employees representing the union and management usually
prohibited from addressing contractual issues. It usually focuses on
issues to improve organizational performance and employee work-life.

Job Redesign
Redesign of work to increase employee performance for example, job
enlargement to increase use of employee skills, broaden the variety
of work performed and provide the individual with greater autonomy.

Self-Managing Team
Group of employees given responsibility for a product or service and
empowered to make decisions about assignment tasks and work methods.
The team also may be responsible for its own support services and
perform certain personnel functions.

Employee Participation Group
Group of employees, such as a team or work council that does not
fall within the definition of quality circle or a self-managing team.

Source: United States General Accounting Office. Employee
Involvement: Issues for Agencies to Consider in Designing and
Implementing Programs. GAO/GGD 88-82, May, 1988.

Ms. Schlenker is a consultant specializing in strategic planning,
management intervention and overall organizational effectiveness. She
can be reached at (805)





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